Periods 3-4 (1754-1800)

Period 3: 1754-1800

The French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War)

The French and Indian War (1754-1763) was a global conflict between Britain and France that was fought in North America primarily for control of the Ohio River Valley.

Causes: Competition over western lands, competing claims to the Ohio Valley, Native American alliances (most tribes allied with France except the Iroquois)
Key events: Washington’s defeat at Fort Necessity (1754); Braddock’s defeat (1755); British victories at Quebec (1759) and Montreal (1760)
Treaty of Paris (1763): France ceded Canada and territory east of the Mississippi to Britain; Spain ceded Florida to Britain (received Louisiana from France)
Consequences: British debt from the war led to new taxation policies for the colonies; Proclamation of 1763 restricted westward settlement beyond the Appalachian Mountains, angering colonists; Native American resistance continued (Pontiac’s Rebellion, 1763)

Imperial Crisis and the Road to Revolution

British attempts to tax and regulate the colonies after 1763 generated increasing colonial resistance, rooted in the argument that taxation without representation in Parliament violated their rights as Englishmen.

Sugar Act (1764): First tax specifically to raise revenue in the colonies; reduced duty on molasses but increased enforcement
Stamp Act (1765): Direct tax on printed materials; provoked united colonial opposition; Stamp Act Congress (1765) issued the Declaration of Rights and Grievances; Sons of Liberty organised protests; British repealed it in 1766 but passed the Declaratory Act asserting Parliament’s authority to legislate for the colonies “in all cases whatsoever”
Townshend Acts (1767): Taxes on imported goods (glass, lead, paint, paper, tea); led to colonial boycotts and the Circular Letter (Massachusetts urging colonial unity)
Boston Massacre (1770): British soldiers killed five colonists; used as propaganda by Patriots
Tea Act (1773): Granted the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales; led to the Boston Tea Party (1773)
Coercive (Intolerable) Acts (1774): Closed Boston Harbour, dissolved the Massachusetts assembly, increased the governor’s power, allowed quartering of troops

Revolutionary Ideology

Colonial arguments drew on Enlightenment philosophy and English constitutional tradition:

John Locke: Natural rights to life, liberty, and property; right to revolt against tyrannical government
Republicanism: Government derives its authority from the consent of the governed; civic virtue is essential
No taxation without representation: The principle that Parliament could not tax colonists who had no elected representatives
Common Sense (1776): Thomas Paine’s pamphlet arguing for independence in plain, persuasive language; sold over 500,000 copies

The American Revolution

First Continental Congress (1774): Petitioned the king, organised a boycott, called for a Second Congress
Fighting begins: Lexington and Concord (April 1775); Battle of Bunker Hill (June 1775)
Second Continental Congress (1775-1776): Appointed George Washington commander-in-chief; authorised the Continental Army; adopted the Olive Branch Petition (rejected by George III)
Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776): Written primarily by Thomas Jefferson; asserted natural rights, listed grievances against George III, declared independence. Influenced by Locke’s social contract theory.
Key military events: Washington crossing the Delaware and victory at Trenton (1776); British defeat at Saratoga (1777) brought French alliance; Valley Forge (1777-1778); British surrender at Yorktown (1781) after combined American-French forces trapped Cornwallis
Treaty of Paris (1783): Britain recognised American independence; established the Mississippi River as the western boundary; granted Americans fishing rights off Newfoundland

Loyalists (Tories): Approximately 20% of colonists remained loyal to Britain; many fled to Canada or Britain; Loyalist property was confiscated in some states
Native Americans: Most allied with the British; lost significant territory regardless of the war’s outcome
African Americans: Some fought for the British (Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation, 1775, promised freedom to enslaved people who joined the British); others fought for the Patriots (Rhode Island Black Regiment); northern states began gradual emancipation after the war
Women: Managed farms and businesses; served as nurses, spies, and in some cases as soldiers (Deborah Sampson); Abigail Adams’s “Remember the Ladies” letter

Period 4: 1800-1848

The Constitution

The Articles of Confederation (1781-1789) created a weak national government with no executive branch, no power to tax, no national currency, and no regulation of commerce. Shays’ Rebellion (1786-1787) exposed these weaknesses and spurred calls for a stronger central government.

The Constitutional Convention (1787) produced the framework for the new government.

Key Compromises:

Great (Connecticut) Compromise: Bicameral legislature with proportional representation in the House of Representatives and equal representation (2 per state) in the Senate
Three-Fifths Compromise: Three-fifths of the enslaved population counted for representation and taxation (but enslaved people were not citizens and could not vote)
Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise: Congress could regulate interstate and foreign commerce, but the international slave trade could not be banned before 1808

Federalists vs Anti-Federalists:

Federalists (Hamilton, Madison, Jay) supported ratification; wrote the Federalist Papers
Anti-Federalists (Patrick Henry, George Mason) opposed ratification without a Bill of Rights, fearing a strong central government would threaten individual liberties
The Bill of Rights (first ten amendments) was ratified in 1791

The Federalist Era (1789-1800)

Washington’s Presidency (1789-1797):

Established precedents: Cabinet, two-term tradition, neutrality in foreign affairs
Hamilton’s financial plan: Assumption of state debts, creation of a national bank, protective tariffs, promotion of manufacturing (Report on Manufactures, 1791)
Whiskey Rebellion (1794): Washington suppressed a tax revolt in western Pennsylvania, asserting federal authority

The First Party System:

Federalists: Hamilton, Adams; favoured a strong central government, commercial and industrial development, close ties with Britain, loose interpretation of the Constitution
Democratic-Republicans: Jefferson, Madison; favoured limited federal government, agricultural economy, states’ rights, close ties with France, strict interpretation
Alien and Sedition Acts (1798): Federalist-sponsored laws restricting immigration and free speech; opposed by Jefferson and Madison (Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798, advancing states’ rights theory of nullification)
Revolution of 1800: Jefferson’s election marked the first peaceful transfer of power between opposing parties

Jeffersonian Democracy (1800-1816)

Louisiana Purchase (1803): Jefferson purchased the Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million, doubling the size of the United States. This was a loose interpretation of constitutional authority (Jefferson himself was uncertain about its constitutionality).
Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806): Explored the new territory to the Pacific, mapping routes and documenting flora, fauna, and Native American societies
Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established judicial review — the Supreme Court’s power to declare laws unconstitutional
Embargo Act (1807): Jefferson banned foreign trade in response to British impressment of American sailors; devastated the American economy and was replaced by the Non-Intercourse Act (1809)
War of 1812: Caused by British impressment, interference with American shipping, and British support for Native American resistance. The war ended in a stalemate (Treaty of Ghent, 1814) but stimulated American nationalism and manufacturing.

The Market Revolution and Jacksonian Democracy (1816-1848)

Market Revolution: Transportation improvements (Erie Canal, 1825; National Road; steamboats; railroads), the rise of factories (Lowell, Massachusetts textile mills), and the growth of a market economy transformed American society
Second Bank of the United States: Chartered in 1816; became a political issue when Jackson vetoed its recharter (1832), leading to the rise of pet banks and the Specie Circular
Jacksonian Democracy: Expanded white male suffrage (property requirements eliminated in most states by the 1820s), the rise of the common man in politics, rotation in office, opposition to elite privilege
Nullification Crisis (1832-1833): South Carolina declared the federal tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void; Jackson issued the Force Bill; Henry Clay’s compromise reduced the tariff
Indian Removal Act (1830): Jackson signed the act forcing the relocation of eastern tribes west of the Mississippi; Cherokee removal on the Trail of Tears (1838-1839) resulted in approximately 4,000 deaths

Key Terms

French and Indian War, Proclamation of 1763, Stamp Act, Townshend Acts, Boston Tea Party, Intolerable Acts, Continental Congress, Declaration of Independence, Saratoga, Yorktown, Treaty of Paris 1783, Articles of Confederation, Shays’ Rebellion, Great Compromise, Three-Fifths Compromise, Federalist Papers, Bill of Rights, Alien and Sedition Acts, Louisiana Purchase, Marbury v. Madison, War of 1812, Market Revolution, Trail of Tears, Nullification Crisis

Exam Tips

Analyse the ideological origins of the Revolution (republicanism, natural rights, social contract)
Compare Federalist and Democratic-Republican visions for America
Connect economic changes (Market Revolution) to social and political developments
Understand how the Constitution resolved weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation
Analyse the contradiction between revolutionary ideals and the continuation of slavery

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